By Dessy Assenova
The purpose of the article 'Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: the role of modality and contiguity' is to contribute to multimedia learning theory by clarifying and testing two cognitive principles: the continuity principle and the modality principle.
The purpose of the other three articles is to analyse the use of monitors and to describe some solutions according to the concepts and Parallel Instruction theory.
According to the article 'Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: the role of modality and contiguity' the contiguity principle states that the effectiveness of multimedia instruction increases when words and pictures are presented contiguously in time and space. There are two effects that can be expected from continuity principle. The first effect is a temporal-contiguity effect, which refers to learning enhancement when visual and spoken materials are temporally synchronised that is presented simultaneously rather than successively. The second effect is a spatial-contiguity effect, which refers to learning enhancement when printed text and pictures are physically integrated or close to each other rather than physically separated. This principle has also been described under the name of split-attention effect in the cognitive load literature. The split-attention effect is defined as "the impairment in learning that arises from the need to mentally integrated disparate sources of information before instructional material can be rendered intelligible".
The second cognitive principle that is described at the article "Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: the role of modality and contiguity" - the modality principle - states that words should be presented as auditory narration rather than as visual on-screen text. In the other words, verbal information should be presented auditory rather than visually. Based on the evidence from many studies the authors state that the effective capacity of working memory can be increased by using both visual and auditory channels and also attention can be better divided between the eye and ear than between two auditory or two visual channels. In other words, the dual-presentation modalities may increase working memory resources by activating both auditory and visual working memory rather than just one.
After the theory background the article "Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: the role of modality and contiguity" presented two experiments, which are used to clarify and make distinguish between described cognitive principles. The goal of Experiment 1 was to distinguish between spatial-contiguity and modality effects in multimedia learning with animation. Experiment 2 was designed to distinguish between temporal-contiguity and modality effects in multimedia learning with animation.
The results of Experiment 1 support both modality and spatial contiguity interpretation. The modality interpretation states that students who learn with auditory verbal materials plus animation recall more, solve problems better, and better able to match the visual and verbal elements than those who learn with on-screen text plus animation. The spatial-contiguity interpretation states that students who learn with integrated on-screen text plus animation recall more and solve problems better than those who learn from on-screen text separated from animation. The corresponding graphic and text materials in multimedia lesson should be physically integrated as much as possible, rather than separating them out for reason of aesthetics.
These results refer to Piavio’s theory, which states that when learners can concurrently hold words in auditory working memory and pictures in visual working memory, they are better able to devote attentional resources to building connections between them.
The results of Experiment 2 show that not only more information is likely to be held in both auditory and visual working memory rather than in just one but also that the combination of visual verbal materials with visual non-verbal materials may create deeper understanding than the combination of visual verbal and non-verbal materials. These results suggest that it is better to present the learner with materials that allow for processing corresponding text and graphics in parallel, that is, by using mixed modality presentations. In other words the advantage of the narration over text did not disappear when presentations were made sequential.
The term split-attention effect refers to several effects of very different cognitive nature. Some of them are spatial-contiguity effect, temporal-contiguity effect and modality effect. Spatial-contiguity clearly indicates effects in learning because of differences in closeness of the verbal and non-verbal visual materials, which need to be integrated in a lesson. Temporal-contiguity clearly refers to the effects in learning that arise because of differences in synchronically between the verbal and non-verbal materials that need to be integrated in a lesson. Modality clearly indicates the effects in learning that arise from using different modalities to represent verbal materials in a multimedia lesson.
In the article "Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: the role of modality and contiguity", experiments were not focused on individual differences in spatial ability, coordination ability, or experience. Since, there are many different learning processes in computerise and non-computerised self-organising environments that are used by different individuals.
The results of experiments that are presented in the articles support also Parallel Instruction theory (PI-theory) which is a design theory for how to design open digital learning environments which are richer and better for all kind of learning profiles. It is based on some strange aspects of people memory. It is for designing interactive working environments such as instruction programs learning programs and self-organising learning environments that require different techniques and methods of presentation on the monitor than linear programs. "The philosophy behind the concept and the idea of parallelism is: using different viewports, bigger screen of different layers- as pieces of papers on a desks-doing something is much more efficient; working something is much more efficient; and (so) learning something is much more efficient and possible". (Min, Claessens, Clerx & Moonen, The Parallelism project, 1999)
In PI-theory researchers suppose that a user in an open learning environment can only work and learn if the environment has been designed in such a way that all relevant information to take decisions is ‘visible’ or can be immediately ‘retrieved’. They do not believe that everything can be done with electronic materials. It is difficult to provide an electronic note-taking facility in parallel with the processes taking place on the monitor, so they suppose that for most of the users note-taking is essential for self-organising learning processes.
"The main characteristic of a classical learning environment is that the pupil can be surrounded by a large amount of informative materials. In "classical programmed instruction" information appears on the screen and replaces the previous information that disappears. The user either needs a good memory or has to take notes". (Min, 1994) This refer to the contiguity principle that is explain above.
According to Min (1994) good learning environments require parallel instruction and we can see many such situations all around us in everyday life. Parallelism is a phenomenon that occurs frequently in class and in ordinary life. Human beings retrieve parallel information and like working with lots of things in view. This one of the reason why "users keep many windows permanently open and on ‘stand by’ to support their need for a self-structured working environment."
The PI-theory can also be described as follows: "When one has to design an open learning- or working environment, one should do everything within one’s power to have all lose components within easy reach and ready for use. They should remain in the position (or state) which they have (or had) at the time." This refers to cognitive principles that are presented in article "Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: the role of modality and contiguity".
The Pi-theory supposes that for simulation environment the need for instructions is great but parallelism is essential (Min, 1992) that was supported by the contiguity principle. According to Min (1994), open learning environments for simulation fail without instructions or with poorly shaped instructions.
Min, R. (2001). ‘Parallelism’ and the ‘Parallel Instruction theory’. [Online] Available: http://users.edte.utwente.nl/min/home/Theory2.htm
Min, R. (1994). Parallelism in open learning and working environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 25 (2), 108-112.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (1999). Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: the role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91 (2), 358-368.