Cognitive load theory is deemed as one of the basic theories and philosophies for learning and instructional design. A review of some aspects of this theory, in relation to some aspects of parallelism and the PI theory, is significant.
A working memory is used to process all instructional material. Working memory is very limited with respect to the number of elements it can handle but its capacity may be enhanced if information is processed using both the visual and auditory channel. All material handled by working memory can be transferred to long-term memory in the from of schemas that can vary in their degree of automaticity. Both schema construction and automation have the dual function of storing information in long-term memory and reducing the load on working memory. From this part, we can see the concepts mentioned above are the basic structures in human cognitive architecture, which is an important composition of cognitive load theory.
Secondly, cognitive load theory: some information structures and their cognitive load consequences are explained. Here some important concepts are Intrinsic Cognitive Load and Element Interactivity, Understanding, Expertise, Schema Construction, and Element Interactivity, Extraneous Cognitive Load and Instructional Design, and Germane Cognitive Load and Instructional Design.
The cognitive architecture suggests that prime goals of instruction are the construction and the automation of schemas that are useful for solving the problems of interest. The ease with which information may be processed in working memory is a prime concern of cognitive load theory. When non-interacting elements can be learned in isolation, intrinsic cognitive load is low because working memory load due to the intrinsic nature of the task is low. Understanding occurs when high element interactivity material can be held simultaneously in working memory. Intrinsic cognitive load through element interactivity is determined by an interaction between the nature of the material being learned and the expertise of the learners. Intrinsic cognitive load due to element interactivity and extraneous cognitive load due to instructional design are additive. Appropriate instructional designs can reduce extraneous cognitive load and redirect learners’ attention to cognitive processes that are directly relevant to the construction of schemas.
In the third part of measuring comparative cognitive load, concepts and process such as the Concept of Load, Cognitive Load and Mental Effort, Measuring Cognitive Load, and Instructional Efficiency are given.
Cognitive load is generally considered a construct representing the load that performing a particular task imposes on the cognitive system. It can be conceptualized as a task-based dimension (i.e., mental load) and a learner-based dimension (i.e., mental effort), both of which affect performance. A combination of the intensity of mental effort being expended by learners and level of performance attained by the learners constitutes the best estimator of instructional efficiency. By studies, it was hypothesized and found that instruction with worked examples leads to superior schema construction and higher efficiency compared to instruction with conventional examples.
So cognitive load theory, which emphasizes working memory constraints as determinants of instructional effectiveness, assumes the above architecture and makes assumptions concerning the structure of information. These cognitive and information structures can be used to generate appropriate instructional designs that accord with the cognitive architecture.
In the last part of the article, some instructional procedures are introduced. Through experiments and concerning the strength and stability of the effects studied, many cognitive load effects are described: the Goal-free Effect, Worked Example Effect, Completion Problem Effect, Split-Attention Effect, Modality effects Redundancy Effect and Variability Effect.
Just as what the authors stated in the conclusions of the article, in those areas of the curriculum where problem-solving performance is critical, an emphasis on goal-free problems, worked examples, and completion problems can all be effective. These designs were devised as alternatives to solving conventional problems that normally require means-ends search to attain solution. The split-attention effect derived from the worked example effect. The elimination of split-attention is important for all forms of instruction, not just when using worked examples. The modality effect partly derived from the split-attention effect. Dual modality presentation under split-attention conditions facilitates schema construction and automation as effectively as physical integration of visually presented materials. The redundancy effect also derived from the split-attention effect. How redundant material is dealt with should depend on learners’ level of expertise. The variability effect was predicated on the assumption that while an increased extraneous cognitive load had negative consequences, increases in germane cognitive load could be beneficial. Variability increases germane cognitive load but that increase in load on working memory benefits schema construction.
As a new and creative instructional theory, The Parallel Instruction Theory and Parallelism was developed by Rik Min from 1992 to 1994, which focus mainly on simulation environments and e-learning environments.
2.1 Parallelism
In PC era, especially under the e-learning environment, most users want to have much better overviews about what they are doing in computer- or web-based environments. The screen of a standard PC has a terrible small surface to do something, to work on tasks, or to learn in high tech e-learning environments. (Min, 1994)
The philosophy behind the concept and the idea of parallelism is that users prefer to use bigger screens and multiple screens; view-ports or web-frames; or different layers with information as pieces of papers on a desk: as windows as recommend in the desk-top-philosophy.
With the concept of parallelism, the learning environment should contain a lot of windows: windows with texts, windows with pictures, windows with micro-world problems, windows with intelligent feedback (text-messages or video-messages), even paper-based manuals as extra 'windows'. In such condition, concerning with a simulation based on open learning environment with a lot of parallel windows even parallel paper materials, all the important information for solving the problem can be in view and immediately retrieved and users are available to have them all under control. The fact that large screens are so popular partly proves the ideas found on parallelism.
2.2 The Parallel Instruction Theory
The 'parallel instruction theory' for simulation environments (and in fact for all open working-, doing- and learning-environments), in short the 'PI-theory', was discovered, developed and first published by Min around 1992. In this theory, Min assumed that users in an open learning environment could work and learn better if the environment had been designed in such a way that all relevant information were visible or could be immediately retrieved.
The PI-theory of Min can be described as follows: When one has to design an open learning- or working-environment, one should do everything within one's power to have all loose components within easy reach and ready for use. They should remain in the position (or state) which they have (or had) at the time. In particular the instruction, feedback, tasks, the solution room, scrapbook etc. should be parallel to the open learning environment of the (bare) simulator (with the key to the problem). So far it is assumed that the usefulness of parallelism in open do environments is due to:
The user's limited short-term-memory as regards details or loose components; because the monitor always wipes out the image contents partly or entirely when the next image is shown;
By comparing of the two theories mentioned above, we can deduce and conclude that the PI theory partially develops and makes references from the cognitive theory and other related theories and then has its own innovation and creation at the same time. There exists similarity and coincidence between them but also exists difference.
3.1 Difference:
Some aspects of cognitive load theory states the relationship between Cognitive Architecture and the traditional Instructional Design and its effectiveness. Through explaining the functions of working memory, long-term memory, schemas, schema construction and automation and so on, the article stresses the importance and relationships between Intrinsic cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load as well as between mental load and mental effort in instructional design. It thinks appropriate instructional designs can reduce extraneous cognitive load and redirect. While the PI theory pays more attention to solve the instructional problems under the simulation environments and e-learning environments. On the base of conventionally instructional design, the PI theory concentrates on how to make full use of high technologies to meet the requirement of update instructional design by analyzing the needs of the users.
3.2 Similarity and coincidence:
Both have deep-laid philosophies, which generate from multidisciplinary sciences, especially from the study and research of physiology and psychology. For instance, in the instructional design both emphasize the interactivity of intrinsic cognitive load and try to reduce extraneous cognitive load. Split-attention theory, cognitive load theory, and dual code theory and so on are good references and introduction to the PI theory.
Both relate each other, influence each other, develop each other and prompt each other. Logically, the development of PI theory may borrow some ideas from the cognitive load theory, in contras, the development of PI theory will enrich and enhance the cognitive load theory.
Both can be used to support effective instructional design and provide advanced theory and methods to improve users’ learning capacity and change their learning environment. As a product of PC era, the PI theory will play a more and more outstanding role in e-learning environments.