Part C. Future plans

In part C you see 2 chapters: my experiments, my articles and my conferences.

Chapter C.1: Experiments

Designing / running experiments
Universiteit Twente, Enschede / Holland Signaal, Hengelo
2000

Takenselectie

In overleg met mijn begeleider bij Holland Signaal is een ‘afregel taak’ voor maintainers geselecteerd. Deze zal worden bestudeerd en worden ingedeeld volgens de ‘levels of information processing’ van Rasmussen. Het doel is uiteindelijk om van elke ‘level’ 1 of 2 taken te vinden waarmee geëxperimenteerd kan worden. In Tabel I staan de verschillende taakcategorieën.

Tabel I: Categorieën van taken

Skill-based

Rule-based

Knowledge-based

?

 

?

?

Doelgroepselectie

Ik dacht aan twee soorten doelgroepen. De één afgestemd op de situatie bij Holland Signaal (zie ‘B Interim report, 3 The company Hollandse Signaal apparaten B.V.’) en de ander afgestemd op het hoger technisch onderwijs (scholen). Ik heb voor hoger technisch onderwijs gekozen omdat ik verwacht dat soortgelijke taken als die van Signaal alleen zullen voorkomen in technische opleidingen. Tabel II laat de kenmerken zien van de twee doelgroepen.

Tabel II: Kenmerken van de doelgroepen gebaseerd op de situatie bij Holland Signaal en die bij het hoger technisch onderwijs.

Holland Signaal

Hoger technisch onderwijs

  • Weinig technische voorkennis
  • Slechte tot redelijke beheersing van de engelse taal
  • Lager tot middelbaar geschoold niveau
  • Geen voorkennis over het onderwerp
  • Technische voorkennis
  • Redelijk tot goede beheersing van de engelse taal
  • Hoger geschoold niveau
  • Geen voorkennis over het onderwerp

Variabelenselectie

Aan de hand van de gevonden ontwerpeisen zullen een aantal ‘designs’ geselecteerd worden. Al de ‘designs’ zullen bestaan uit een ‘korte’ ICT applicatie voor het leren van één specifieke taak. Voorlopig zal alles op één beeldscherm gebeuren, waarbij instructie wel of niet gecombineerd wordt met virtuele objecten. Een ander aspect dat onderdeel zal uitmaken van één of meerdere designs is het ‘mimicking’ (zie Zomerschool, Tomassello). Verder zal de volgorde van aanbieden gevarieerd worden (bijvoorbeeld, eerst lezen dan imiteren en dan doen). De tijd die proefpersonen nodig hebben om de taken te leren zal worden gevarieerd en er zal een balans gevonden moeten worden tussen de tijd die het gekost heeft en de prestatie die het opgeleverd heeft. Tabel x geeft een voorspelling van de variabelen die gebruikt gaan worden. Deze zullen uiteindelijk ook afhangen van de soort taken die gekozen worden en de technische mogelijkheden.

Tabel x: Afhankelijke en onafhankelijk variabelen van de experimenten

Afhankelijke variabele

Onafhankelijk variabelen

  • Taakprestatie (Snelheid + Fouten)
  • Inhoudelijke kennis (Snelheid + Fouten)
  • Taken (Skill-, Rule-, knowledge based)
  • Design (Nader te bepalen; bijv. Parallel / serieel + Met / zonder context informatie [‘mimicking’] + Volgorde variatie)
  • Leertijd (Lang + Kort)
  • Doelgroep (HS + HBO)

Bouwen applicatie

Er wordt nog getwijfeld over het bouwen van applicaties. De mogelijkheden zijn:

Ik zou het liefst eerst een geschikte cursus volgen en het vervolgens zelf doen. Als dit echter te veel tijd gaat kosten, moet ik mijn toevlucht zoeken tot hulp van een student(e). De laatste optie (hulp van Holland Signaal) is voorlopig niet mogelijk (zie ‘D Sidelines, 4 project’).

Uitvoering

Waarschijnlijk zijn er teveel variabelen om allemaal tegelijk getest te worden, maar in het meest optimistisch scenario zou het volgende onderzoeksontwerp gelden:

Taak (3) x Design (3?) x Leertijd (2) x Doelgroep (2)


Chapter C.2: Articles / Conferences

Tijdschriften

Er zijn een aantal tijdschriften waarin ik zou willen publiceren, maar die nog even op zich laten wachten, omdat in deze bladen alleen artikelen over experimenten worden gepubliceerd.

Ben nog op zoek naar bladen waarin een theoretisch verhaal voldoende is.

Congressen

17 december ga ik naar het congres van de Nederlandse vereniging voor psychonomie in Egmond aan zee.

Ik ben van plan een artikel toe te sturen naar:

Misschien is het voor deze congressen ook nodig eerst experimenten te hebben gedaan.



Part D. Sidelines

In part D you see 4 chapters: my presentation(s) (1), my course (2), my summer school (3) and my project (afstudeerproject) (4).

Chapter D.1: Presentations

Date

Place

Those present

Subject

17th of February

 

22nd of September

 

27th of September

Holland Signaal

 

Holland Signaal

 

University of Twente

Division Integrated Logistic Support

Rik Min

Hans Clerx

Division Instrumentation technology

Research plans

 

Discussion article

 

Activities first year



Slide:

Onderzoeksproject Universiteit Twente en Hollandse Signaalapparaten B.V.
Mona Claessens
17 Februari 1999

1. Theoretische achtergrond
2. Onderzoek
3. Praktische toepassing



Slide:

1. Theoretische achtergrond

 

 

Psychologie: cognitieve ergonomie

(Universiteit Utrecht)

Vaardigheden: verkeersgedrag

(TNO Technische Menskunde)

Toegepaste onderwijskunde: instrumentatietechnologie

(Universiteit Twente)

Training: ‘Tools’

(Hollandse Signaalapparaten B.V.)


Slide:

2. Onderzoek

 

 

Aio project

= verdere wetenschappelijke opleiding en vorming

Uitgangspunt: Parallellisme (Min)

= Alle relevante informatie tegelijkertijd aanwezig

Onderzoeksvraag: Criteria?

= taak, doelgroep, enz.

Einddoel: Probleem oplossing

= specifieke ontwerpregels ‘HS-tools’

Theorievorming

= breed toepasbare ontwerptheorie UT


Slide:

3. Praktische toepassing

Vergelijken van verschillende presentatievormen / media

Knelpunten inventarisatie

Medium; Gebruiker; Taak

 

Implementatie

Ideale combinatie van medium x, gebruiker x en taak x voor het bereiken van doel x



Slide:

The effects of interaction with the device described by procedural text or recall, true/false, and task performance

 

 

Virginia A. Diehl

and

Carol Bergfeld Mills

 

 

Date meeting:

22 September 1999


Slide:

Theories

Text representation theory

According to van Dijk and Kintsch (1983) people form propositional and situational representations as they read. Propositional representations hold the meaning of the ‘pure’ text. No redundant information is given. Situational representations also represent the situation described by the text. Whit these representations extra information about the context of the procedure described in the text is available. Both representations develop differential and the extent to which they are developed leads to differences in performance on various measures. A study of Perrig and Kintsch showed that propositional representations lead to better recall, while situational one's lead to more accurate inferencing (= derivation, deduction), recognition tasks and problem solving (also task performance).

Dual coding theory

Dual coding theory (Paivio, 1991). Long-term memory contains two independent but interacting subsystems. One presents the linguistic information (e.g. spoken information), and the other represents spoken information (e.g. pictures or object manipulation). The implication of the subsystems’ independence is that when the same information is coded both verbally and non-verbally it will have greater mnemonic power than only coded one way. In addition, according to this theory, if nonverbal information is processed in more than one sensimotor modality (e.g. visual and proprioceptive = receiving and processing stimuli that originate from the central nervous system), this will have additive effects in recall. Thus, the more codes that represent the information in memory, the better that information will be remembered.


Slide:

Experiment

Methods

Conditions:

Measures:

Subjects:

Apparatus:

Tasks:

Procedures:

Within subjects analysis:

Between subject analysis:



Slide:

Predictions

Text representation theory

Task performance:

  1. Read-do
  2. Read-see do
  3. Read-see
  4. Read only / Read-imagine

True / False:

  1. Read-see / Read only
  2. Read-see do / Read imagine
  3. Read-do

* Recall:

  1. Read-see / Read only
  2. Read-see do / Read-imagine
  3. Read do

Dual Coding theory

Task performance, True / False, * Recall:

  1. Read-do
  2. Read-see do
  3. Read-see
  4. Read-imagine
  5. Read only


Slide:

Results

Main effects:

Task performance:

  1. Read-see do
  2. Read-do / Read-see
  3. Read-imagine / Read only

True / False:

  1. Read-see
  2. Read only
  3. Read-see do / Read imagine / Read-do

Recall:

  1. Read-see / Read only
  2. Read-see do / Read-imagine
  3. Read do

Conclusions



Slide:

Onderzoeksproject Universiteit Twente en Holland Signaal
Mona Claessens
27 September 1999

1. Activiteiten afgelopen jaar

2. Toekomstplannen



Slide:

1. Activiteiten afgelopen jaar:

Universiteit Twente Holland Signaal
Theoretische onderbouwing voor de hypothese dat onder bepaalde omstandigheden het parallel aanbieden van informatie gunstig is. Praktische toepassing van ‘Computer Based Training’ en ‘Virtual Reality’ bij training van ‘Signaal-klanten’.
Theorieën moeten leiden tot een geschikt design van ICT-applicaties die gebruikt worden bij het aanleren van verschillende taken.
Literatuurstudie:
  • Taken
  • Informatieverwerkingstheorieën
  • Virtual Reality

Bevindingen:

  • Indeling taken
  • Bepaling design
  • Definiëring Virtual Reality
Veldonderzoek:
  • Demonstraties
  • Volgen cursus
  • Gesprekken / Interviews

Bevindingen:

  • Definiëring doelgroep
  • Definiëring context
  • Leidt tot specifieke design eisen



Slide:

2. Toekomstplannen

Het vinden van de ideale ‘taak-design-match’:

  1. Het vinden van prototypische ‘Holland Signaal’ taken bij elk taak niveau, zoals gevonden in de literatuur.

     

  2. Het ontwikkelen van Computer Based Training software om deze taken te leren.

     

  3. Het testen van verschillende designs voor het leren van deze taken, gebaseerd op informatieverwerkingstheorieën.

     

  4. Het vergelijken van de taakprestatie met de tijd die er voor nodig was de taak te leren.


Chapter D.2: Course

Course for maintainers about operator aspects
Holland Signaal, Hengelo
May 1999

There were 7 participants of the course. They were all Indonesian maintainers. Three of them were from a shipyard (civil) and four of them were from the marine (military).

The first day students were explained the necessary theory (from 10.50h - 12.50h and from 13.20h - 14.08h) and were made familiar with the apparatus (14.25h - 15.50h).

The second day the students got the opportunity top practice more with the apparatus and meanwhile some more theory was provided on the basis of the practicing.

The teacher used a blackboard and sheets that showed schemes and print outs from display-screens from the apparatus. He explained things very slowly and used examples, anecdotes or even jokes. He evoked participation by asking questions before giving the information. After the explanation of important information he was quit for short period, so students could write things down. Regularly he asked whether they understood things. When sheets were shown he referred to the pages of their manuals, were the figures etc of the sheets were also available.

There was not very much response, maybe because of the language problem. Some students could nearly not speak English.

The students came in at about 9.15u. They were asked to study the accompanying manuals. At 10.50u the lesson began with a question about an excursion they had made the day before. After a short 'chat' an introduction was given to the things that would be taught. Then it was told what kind of lesson materials (manuals) they had to use for this course.

The course was divided in two theoretical parts: theory about the MOC (Multi Operator Console) and theory about the GSS (x). The MOC is a console that is mainly used by operators and the GSS is a console that is specifically used by maintainers. They also have the opportunity to use a PIOD (x), but this is not explained in this course.

The main task of this maintainer course is to find check the state of the system and to find faults. Comparing two windows (on the MOC or on the GSS) available at the same time can be done for checking the system. In these windows contain icons of the subsystems involved (for example radar's, guns etc.). These icons are marked by colors that refer to the states they are in (green = available, orange = degraded, red = not available and grey = not connected). By comparing these icons the states of the subsystems can be determined.

Faults can be found in four different ways. They can be found by clicking on the icons from the subsystems that they want to check for faults. Another window appears that shows where in the system there are errors. From several aspects of the system it is showed if they are available or not. When one of the aspects are not available it there is a problem. Another way to spot faults is by looking at the statistics window, here there are graphs that show the load of the system. The third way is to check the system with the help of the BITE (Built in Test) of the system. This is an automatic check of the system for occurring faults. Via the PIOD these test can be seen remotely. Finally, a maintainer could walk to the system itself to check for defects.

For the practical part of the course the group was divided into two subgroups, three people were seated behind the GSS and four people were to work with the MOC. They were asked to fulfil several assignments, but it did not happen in a very structured way. The lesson was mostly meant to play with and get familiar with the systems. When a problem occurred or a question was asked the teacher asked a general question about this and they had to find out the answer themselves.

The second day they got the opportunity to practice more and got more theory on the basis of practical rehearsal.

This was a course in the highest level of faultfinding. This means that it concerns finding in what subsystems there are faults. Deeper faultfinding concerns were in the subsystems there are faults.

Chapter D.3: Summer school

Summer school for Cognitive Science
New Bulgarian University, Sofia
July-august 1999

Course 1

Human thinking: Boicho Kokinov

Short description contents

This course will focus both on classical topics in psychology of reasoning such as deductive and analogical reasoning and on topics relating human thinking with development, perception, memory, and natural environment. The problems studied will range from simple syllogistic tasks to scientific discoveries and the methodology used will range from laboratory experiments and the natural observation to computer simulation.

Summary relevant information

According to Gentner (1989) an analogy making is mapping knowledge from one domain (the base) into another (the target).

Sub processes of analogy making:

Analogies can be of properties, but also about relationships. Analogies are much used for scientific reasoning (Dunbar). Researchers only use structural analogies. They use analogies for formulating, designing and explaining.

Gentner has a structure mapping theory. This mapping model describes the transfer of systems of relations.

There is a difference between analogical representation and analogical reasoning. With analogical reasoning you need to transfer rules.

The ability to analogical reasoning starts at a very early age, deductive reasoning starts later. Infants use imitations, later they recognize when someone is imitating him/her. They only imitate active exposures.

Context and priming effects develop with time. Priming is the activation of already processed information. A characteristic of priming is that it does not involve explicit remembering. Experiments were done with ‘priming problems’ (P) and ‘target problems’ (T). First priming problems are given to the subjects and after a certain amount of time (delay) a second problem is to be solved. It is measured whether certain concepts from the priming problem are activated during solving the target problem. Thus, it is investigated whether priming problems influence target problems.

We can find priming with problem solving but it disappears with time.

Priming:

Time


 

 

Far priming:

Time


P T

 

 

Very far priming:

Time


P             T

 

 

Priming Effects:

Kokinov found context effects on problem solving. He presented subjects a target problem on a paper with an "irrelevant" context problem. They were asked to solve only the target problem. Both problems were accompanied by an illustration. Results showed that answers to the target problem differed according to the different kinds of context problems. It seemed to be that the illustrations were perceived simultaneously and that the context activated certain concepts.

Course 2

Perception-based spatial reasoning: Reinhart Moratz

Short description contents

The integration of perception and the action with processes of reasoning and cognition creates a foundation for intelligent behavior. Aspects of space are central to both perception and the action. In the field of artificial intelligence great success was achieved in dealing with formal knowledge and also with sensor data alone. But to bridge the gap between symbolic and sensor data remains difficult. Spatial reasoning is a field in which the relation between different modalities of knowledge can be studied in a prototypical way.

Summary relevant information

Human visual system:

Pre-attentive processes

Attentive processes

Feature integration theory (Treismann)

When an object can be located by attending only to one feature this search can be done in parallel

When an object can only be located by attending to conjunctions of features this search is done in a serial manner.

Context is important. The scene context effect shows that when objects are shown in unusual contexts, such as a bench in the city they are easier to trace.

Course 3

Models of memory: Richard M. Shiffrin

Short description contents

The course provides analysis of contemporary memory models, though intensive examination of models of each type, and evaluation of their ability to handle the critical data in the field. The models considered are designed to apply to implicit and explicit memory tasks, recognition and recall procedures, free response and signal-to-respond data, and paradigms involving priming and cueing. Models for both accuracy and response time will be discussed. Both computer simulation and mathematical models will be covered.

Summary relevant information

Types of memory:

Short Term Store divides experience into episodes. These episodes are remembered for a while and then forgotten. This is what they cal retention. The longer the retention intervals the closer to the Long Term Store.

When an event occurs also the content information is stored. Repetitions of the same item in a similar context will often lead to both storage of a new episodic image and the storage of a previous episodic image. If the context of the item varies, you add possible contexts. A group context is created separated from the specific contexts and personal references, general knowledge.

List length effect is the phenomenon that the more items are in a list to be remembered, the less good items can be remembered.

To recall information from memory a sequential search is needed. Items are sampled, searched and checked. The process of recall is slow and not as easy successful as recognition.

To recognize earlier obtained information, there is only one process is needed that works in parallel. Recognition is a fast process with more chance on success than recall.

Recognition is easier on the basis of additional contexts. This is because there are more possible matches with memories of earlier events.

With identification implicit memory is used and with recall explicit memory is used. A difficult task must be done on the basis of implicit memory.

Episodic semantic trace does not chance much over time due to delay. Context does.

It is very difficult to interpret results with response times. There is the complicated relation between accuracy and speed. Speed increases at the expense of accuracy. To deal with this problem the items must be studied longer.

100%

% Correct

95%

Fast                         Slow

Response times

Own consideration: Parallel can be simultaneous in terms of receiving the information and in terms of processing the information. Pictures can be processed in a parallel manner (see Treismann’s theory of feature integration), but text always has to be processed in a serial manner.

Course 4

Categorization: Evan Heit

Short description contents

This course addresses to categorization and interrelated cognitive abilities such as recognition memory and inductive reasoning. Topics to be covered include models of categorization, how category learning is constrained by background knowledge, whether there is more than one system of categorization, and how categories are used for inductive reasoning.

Summary relevant information

Categorization is closely linked to other cognitive mechanisms such as memory judgement, problem solving, language acquisition, semantic similarity etc..

With categorization there are two processes involved:

Fast categorization:

Slow categorization:

Explicit memory

Implicit memory

  • Conscious
  • Knowledge
  • Declarative
  • Knowing that
  • Autobiographical
  • Recognition
  • Unconscious
  • Skill
  • Procedural
  • Knowing how
  • Perceptual
  • Priming

Inductive reasoning = Probabilistic reasoning involving projection of properties of some event or category to another similar item.

Inductive reasoning is from general to specific:

Deductive reasoning is from specific to general (beyond information you’ve got):

Similarity promotes inductive reasoning. Bat looks like an owl, but is more similar to a stork.

Course 5

Child language development: Michael Tomasello

Short description contents

This course focuses on basic processes in first language acquisition from the point of view of children's broader skills of cognition, communication, and symbolization. Topics include: cognitive and functional linguistics, pragmatics and word learning., early syntax, individual and cross-linguistic variation, and theories of language development.

Summary relevant information

Children learn by participating in a context, not by just pointing out external things. Children are very good in associating, but that is not the same as learning a word or learning language. You have to make them understand the function.

Processes of language

Course 6

Brain and language; new approaches to evolution and development: Elisabeth Bates

Short description contents

This course is about the debate against the notion that language is innate.

Summary relevant information

None. Her vision is that language is not an individual thing that is localized in a particular part of the brain. It is learned and distributed across the brain.

Course 7

Culture and Cognition: Roy D’ Andrade

Short description contents

This course is the study of the way in which cultural understandings are psychologically organized and used. The development of a theoretical framework to understand this problem began with work on semantic features and taxonomies and has continued to current work on schemas, neural nets, and cultural models. This course will cover basic findings of this field and also involve students in a series of exercises using ethnographic interviewing to investigate cultural models concerning honor and violence. Cognitive anthropology has connections to standard courses in cognitive psychology, especially work on categorization, reasoning, and memory. It also has relations to work in linguistics on semantics and to work in artificial intelligence.

Summary relevant information

None. Roy D’Andrade has developed a FOLK model that explains human behavior.

Stimuli --> [Perception --> Thought --> Whish --> Intention ] --> Response

Course 8

Short description contents

This course will introduce the participants to what I believe to be one of the main challenges for future cognitive science: How to reconcile Emergence and cognition, with special attention to the social domain. The course will take into account and compare literature from AI (in particular agents and MAS), cognitive science (social psychology), social sciences.

Summary relevant information

None. He showed models about social interaction between agents.

Conlusies

De zomerschool was erg nuttig met betrekking tot de volgende vier opzichten:

Behandelde onderwerpen

Kennismaking met verschillende manieren van lesgeven

Kennismaking met verschillende manieren van onderzoek doen

Kennismaking met andere studenten, onderzoekers, universitair (hoofd)docenten.

Uiteindelijk ben ik naar al de ‘lectures’ geweest, behalve naar die over ‘visual perception’ (tijdens de eerste les bleek alles oud nieuws te zijn voor mij, bovendien had ik moeite met de manier van lesgeven). Het was erg jammer dat Prof. John Hayes (Applying cognitive science to instruction) niet in de gelegenheid was te komen (oog operatie).

Chapter D.4: Project (afstudeerproject)

Computer Based training project
Holland Signaal, Hengelo
July 1999

1. AVP betreffende computer based training

Er is een aanvraag proefneming gedaan door de subafdeling Training van de afdeling ILS te Holland Signaal. Met deze proefaanvraag wordt toestemming gevraagd om nader onderzoek te mogen doen naar het volgende probleem: In hoeverre zijn Computer Based Training producten (toegespitst op Signaal producten), haalbaar, wenselijk en toepasbaar. Het onderzoek zal gedaan worden aan de hand van een concreet signaal product, het Principal Work Station (PWS), zoals dat voor het LCF-fregat ontwikkeld wordt.

Ik heb de doelstellingen helpen formuleren en daar kwam het volgende uit:

Met deze AVP wordt gestreefd om kennis te vergaren over de volgende zaken:

Kort samengevat: ‘Moeten’ wij het, kunnen wij het en willen wij het?

Het project zal de volgende samenstelling hebben:

Er wordt ook nagedacht over het betrekken van een afstudeerstagiaire van Toegepaste Onderwijskunde.


Afstudeerproject voor TO student(e)
Bedrijf: Hollandse Signaal apparaten B.V.
Afdeling: ‘Integrated Logistic Support’ - International Training Centre

Achtergrond
Hollandse Signaal apparaten B.V. is een defensie organisatie die radar apparatuur ontwikkelt en produceert voor de marine. De afdeling ‘Integrated Logistic Support’ zorgt voor de ondersteunende producten behorende bij de Signaal Systemen, zoals reserve onderdelen, speciaal meetapparatuur, gereedschappen, (digitale) ‘manuals’ en opleidingen. Het onderdeel training verzorgt de opleidingen voor de klant met betrekking tot de bediening en het onderhoud van ‘Signaal apparatuur’. Bij de afdeling training is behoefte aan een onderzoek naar de het nut van computer gestuurd onderwijs voor klanten opleidingen.

Opdracht

Vereisten:

Voor meer informatie kun je contact opnemen met één van de begeleiders:

Mona Claessens: Claessens@edte.utwente.nl; 053-4893873
Hans Clerx: db946@signaal.nl; 074-2482504
Rik Min: Min@edte.utwente.nl 053-4893585
Jef Moonen: Moonen@edte.utwente.nl



Enschede, op het web gezet: sept, 9, 2002