Theories about learning

• A: the mean attention area, a working-, doing- or problem solving environment (width=a);
• B: the instruction, information, task or reference area (parallel) (width=b);
• x: the distance between A and B.

• Situation 1: x > 1/2 a + 1/2 b --> first order parallelism
• Situation 2: x < 1/2 a + 1/2 b --> second order parallelism (overlap)
• Situation 3: x = 0 --> no parallelism; so you have a serial medium

• Paivio, 1990: the dual-code theory
• Chandler & Sweller, 1991: the split-attention theory
• Sweller, 1990 - 1994: the cognitive load theory
• Mayer, 1995: the multimedia learning theory

• Min, 1992 - 1994: the parallel instruction theory

The PI-theory in four points: So far it is assumed that the usefulness of parallelism in open do environments is due to:

• 1. the user's limited short memory as regards details or loose components; because the monitor always wipes out the image contents partly or entirely when the next image is shown;
• 2. the user wants to, must and can compare; by comparing things from the past physically to things of the present;
• 3. the user wants to gain insight into cause/result relations; through repeated verification and compare (with other things);
• 4. the user wants to create his own frame of reference and should be able to do so; by putting things that pass by on the screen side by side (by means of windows) and comparing them.

If you don't give attention to this points or this theory in the design of your multimedial, hypermedial, web-based software product, your product will failed.

• Student 1, Shaban Guma: Benshoof, L.A., en S. Hooper (1993). The effectes of single- and multiple-Window Presentation on Archievements During Computer-Based Instruction'. J. of Comp. Based Inst. vol. 20, no. 4, p. 113-117.
  Benshoof and Hooper investigated the effects of using single- and multiple-window presentations on archievement and window-use.
• Student 2, Hsin-Yi, Lo: Mayer, R. E. and R. Moreno (2000). A split attention Effect in multimedia Learning: Evidence for Dual Processing Systems in Working Memory. J. of Educ. Psych., Vol. 90, no. 2, p. 312-320.
  Mayer and Moreno about multimedia learning and modality principles. Dual code theory? Cognitive principles of multimedia design: split attention effect and other effects.
• Student 3, Tao Yu: Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., and Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design. Educational Psychological Review, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 251-296.
  The cognitive load theory assumes a limited capicity working memory that includes partially independent subcomponents to deal with auditory/verbal material and visual/2- of 3-dimensional information.
• Student 4, Dessy Assenova: Moreno, R., and R.E. Mayer (1999). Cognitive Principles of Multimedia Learning: the role of modality and Cogniguity. J. of Educ. Psychology, vol. 91, no. 2. pp. 358-368.
  Split attention effect; multimedia learning.
• Student 5, Ramadan Abdunabi: Paivio, A., (1986). Mental representation: A dual coding approach. Oxford England. Oxford University Press.
  The article about the Dual Code Theory. Text and visual information (parallel). Integrating texts and visuals.
• Student 6, Shu-hui Shen: Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive Load Theory. Learning & Instruction. vol. 4; pp 295-312.
  The cognitive load theory
• Student 7, Ivy Sun: Mousavi, S. Y., Low, R., & Sweller, J. (1995). Reducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and visual presentation modes. Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 87, pp. 319-334.
  The use of partly visual mode of presentation for geometry worked examples. The logic was based on the split attention effect and the effect of presentation modality on working memory. Split attention between multiple sources of information.
• Student 8, Fitsum Fekadeselassie: Moreno, R., and R.E. Mayer (1999). Multimedia supported Metaphors for meaning Making in Mathematics. Cognition & Instruction, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 215-248.
  Mayer and Moreno (1999) about hih-archieving students and low-archieving students.
• Student 9, Tran Ha: Diehl & Mills (1995). The effects of interaction with the device described by procedural text on recall, true/falls, and task performance. Memory & Cognition.
  Diehl & Mills about "information available while reading leads to differential development of representations in memory, which, in turn, causes differences in perfomance on various measures". A task is: 'read and do' or 'read and see experimenter do' or 'read and imagine' or 'read and see' or 'read only'.
• Student 10: Ainsworth, S. (1999). The functions of multiple representations. Computers and Education, 33, 131-152.
  About multiple representations of the same problem or the same instruction.

Enschede, jan. 23, 2002. 17:26h